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By the mid-13th century the Islamic empire had become dangerously vulnerable, falling victim to the fearsome Mongol fighters in 1258. A look at how the Mongols changed Islam, destroying the institution of the Caliphs – never again would Muslims be united under one leader, and giving rise to the Ottoman Empire.

This is a programme from the ³ÉÈËÂÛ̳ World Service Archive and was originally broadcast in 2002.